Art is not only a way of expressing feelings and thoughts, but also a reflection of the era in which the artist lives. With the development of technology and science, new opportunities for creativity appear that change not only the appearance, but also the meaning of works of art. In this article we will look at how technological innovations have influenced the process of painting, from the use of new materials to digital technology.

Brushstrokes and Oil: How Technology Has Changed Traditional Painting Methods

 

As a result of the changes, new types and genres of painting arose. The ancient period was followed by the period of Antiquity. There was a desire among painters and artists to reproduce the real life around us, as it appears to humans. The desire for accuracy of transmission caused the emergence of the foundations of perspective, the foundations of light and shadow constructions of various images and the study of this by artists. And they, first of all, studied how to depict volumetric space on the plane of a wall, in fresco painting. Some works of art, such as volumetric space, chiaroscuro, began to be used to decorate rooms, religious centers and burials.

The next important period in the past of painting is the Middle Ages. At this time, painting was more religious in nature, and the worldview began to be reflected in the art. The creativity of artists was aimed at icon painting and other melodies of religion. The main important points that the artist had to emphasize were not so much an accurate reflection of reality, but rather the transmission of spirituality even in a wide variety of paintings. The canvases of the masters of that time amazed with their expressiveness of contours, color and colorfulness. Medieval painting seems flat to us. All the characters of the artists of that time are on the same line. And therefore many works seem to us somewhat stylized.

The period of the gray Middle Ages was replaced by the brighter period of the Renaissance. The Renaissance again brought a turning point in the historical development of this art. New moods in society, a new worldview began to dictate to the artist: what aspects of painting to reveal more fully and clearly. Painting genres such as portrait and landscape will become independent styles. Artists express human emotions and their inner world through new ways of painting. The 17th and 18th centuries saw an even more significant growth in painting. During this period, the Catholic Church loses its significance, and artists in their works increasingly reflect the true views of people, nature, everyday life. During this period, genres such as baroque, rococo, classicism, and mannerism were also formed. Romanticism emerges, which is later replaced by a more spectacular style - impressionism.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, painting changed dramatically and a new direction of modern art appeared - abstract painting. The idea of this direction is to convey agreement between man and art, to create harmony in combinations of lines and color highlights. This is art without objectivity. She does not pursue an accurate rendering of a real image, but on the contrary, she conveys what is in the artist’s soul, his emotions. Shapes and colors play an important role in this art form. Its essence is to convey previously familiar objects in a new way. Here artists are given complete freedom of their imaginations. This gave impetus to the emergence and development of modern trends such as avant-garde, underground, abstract art. From the end of the twentieth century to the present day, painting has been constantly changing. But, despite all the new achievements and modern technologies, artists still remain faithful to classical art - oil and watercolor painting, creating their masterpieces with the help of paints and canvases.

The Chemistry of Beauty: The Evolution of Materials in the Art of Painting

 

The history of painting is an endless chain that began with the very first paintings made. Each style grows out of the styles that came before it. Every great artist adds something to the achievements of earlier artists and influences later artists.

We can enjoy painting for its beauty. Its lines, shapes, colors and composition (arrangement of parts) can appeal to our senses and linger in our memories. But the enjoyment of art increases when we learn when and why and how it was created.

The history of painting has been influenced by many factors. Geography, religion, national characteristics, historical events, the development of new materials - all this helps shape the artist's vision. Throughout history, painting has reflected the changing world and our ideas about it. In turn, artists have provided some of the best records of the development of civilization, sometimes revealing more than the written word.

Prehistoric painting

Cave dwellers were the earliest artists. Colored drawings of animals dating from 30,000 to 10,000 BC have been found on cave walls in southern France and Spain. Many of these paintings are remarkably well preserved because the caves were sealed for many centuries. Early people drew paintings of the wild animals they saw around them. Very crude human figures made in life positions have been found in Africa and eastern Spain.

Cave artists filled the cave walls with drawings in rich, vibrant colors. Some of the most beautiful paintings are in the Altamira Cave, in Spain. One detail shows a wounded bison, no longer able to stand - probably the victim of a hunter. It is painted in a reddish brown color and is outlined simply, but skillfully, in black. The pigments used by cave artists were ocher (iron oxides ranging in color from light yellow to dark orange) and manganese (a dark metal). They were ground into a fine powder, mixed with a lubricant (possibly fatty oil), and applied to the surface with some kind of brush. Sometimes the pigments took the form of sticks, similar to crayons. Fat mixed with powdered pigments made a paint liquid, and the pigment particles stuck together. The cave dwellers made brushes from animal hairs or plants, and sharp tools from silicon (for drawing and scratching).

As early as 30,000 years ago, people invented the basic tools and materials for painting. Methods and materials were refined and improved over the following centuries. But the discoveries of the cave dweller remain fundamental to painting.

Egyptian and Mesopotamian painting (3400–332 BC)

One of the first civilizations appeared in Egypt. Much is known about their lives from written records and art left by the Egyptians. They believed that the body should be preserved so that the soul could live on after death. The Great Pyramids were elaborate tombs for wealthy and powerful Egyptian rulers. Much Egyptian art was created for the pyramids and tombs of kings and other important people. To be absolutely sure that the soul would continue to exist, artists created images of a dead person in stone. They also reproduced scenes from human life in wall paintings in burial chambers.

Egyptian art techniques have remained unchanged for centuries. In one method, watercolor paint was applied to clay or limestone surfaces. In another process, outlines were carved into stone walls and painted with watercolors. A material called gum arabic was probably used to adhere the paint to the surface. Fortunately, the dry climate and sealed tombs prevented some of these watercolor paintings from being destroyed by moisture. Many hunting scenes from tomb walls at Thebes, dating from around 1450 BC, are well preserved. They show how hunters chase birds or fish. These subjects can still be identified today because they were carefully and carefully painted.

The Mesopotamian civilization, which lasted from 3200 to 332 BC, was located in the valley between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in the Middle East. Houses in Mesopotamia were built mainly from clay. As the clay is softened by rain, their buildings crumbled into dust, destroying any wall paintings that might have been very interesting. What survives are decorated pottery (painted and fired) and colorful mosaics. Although mosaics cannot be considered painting, they often influence it.

Aegean civilization (3000–1100 BC)

The third great early culture was the Aegean civilization. The Aegeans lived on the islands off the coast of Greece and on the peninsula of Asia Minor at about the same time as the ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians.

In 1900, archaeologists began excavating the palace of King Minos at Knossos on the island of Crete. Excavations have uncovered works of art painted around 1500 BC. in the unusually free and graceful style of the time. Apparently the Cretans were a carefree, nature-loving people. Among their favorite themes in art were sea life, animals, flowers, sports, and mass processions. At Knossos and other Aegean palaces, paintings were done on wet plaster walls using paints made from mineral substances, sand and earthen ochres. The paint soaked into the wet plaster and became a permanent part of the wall. These paintings were later called frescoes (from the Italian word for "fresh" or "new"). Cretans liked bright yellow, red, blue and green colors.

Greek and Roman classical painting (1100 BC – 400 AD)

The ancient Greeks decorated the walls of temples and palaces with frescoes. From ancient literary sources and from Roman copies of Greek art, it can be said that the Greeks painted small paintings and made mosaics. The names of the Greek masters and little of their lives and works are known, although very little Greek painting survived the centuries and the aftermath of wars. The Greeks did not write much in tombs, so their works were not protected.

Painted vases are all that remains of Greek painting today. Pottery making was a large industry in Greece, especially in Athens. Containers were in great demand, exported, as well as oil and honey, and for domestic purposes. The earliest vase painting was done in geometric figures and ornaments (1100-700 BC). The vases were also decorated with human figures in brown glaze on light clay. By the 6th century, vase artists often painted black human figures on natural red clay. The details were carved into clay with a sharp tool. This allowed the red to appear in the depths of the relief.

The red-figure style eventually replaced the black one. That is, vice versa: the figures are red, and the background is black. The advantage of this style was that the artist could use a brush to create outlines. The brush produces a looser line than the metal tool used on black figured vases.

Roman wall paintings have been found mainly in villas (country houses) in Pompeii and Herculaneum. In 79 AD, these two cities were completely buried by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Archaeologists who excavated the area were able to learn a lot about ancient Roman life from these cities. Almost every house and villa in Pompeii had paintings on the walls. Roman painters carefully prepared the surface of the wall by applying a mixture of marble dust and plaster. They polished the surfaces to a marble finish. Many of the paintings are copies of Greek paintings from the 4th century BC. The graceful poses of the figures painted on the walls of the Villa of the Mysteries in Pompeii inspired artists in the 18th century when the city was excavated.

The Greeks and Romans also painted portraits. A small number of them, mostly mummy portraits done in the Greek style by Egyptian artists, survive around Alexandria, in northern Egypt. Founded in the 4th century BC by Alexander the Great of Greece, Alexandria became a leading center of Greek and Roman culture. The portraits were painted using the encaustic technique on wood and installed in the form of a mummy after the death of the person depicted. Encaustic paintings made in paint mixed with melted beeswax last a very long time. Indeed, these portraits still look fresh, even though they were taken back in the second century BC.

Early Christian and Byzantine painting (300–1300)

The Roman Empire declined in the 4th century AD. At the same time, Christianity was gaining strength. In 313, the Roman Emperor Constantine officially recognized the religion and himself converted to Christianity.

The emergence of Christianity greatly influenced art. Artists were commissioned to decorate the walls of churches with frescoes and mosaics. They made panels in church chapels, illustrated and decorated church books. Under the influence of the Church, artists were expected to communicate the teachings of Christianity as clearly as possible.

Early Christians and Byzantine artists continued the mosaic technique they learned about from the Greeks. Small flat pieces of colored glass or stone were set on wet cement or plaster. Sometimes other hard materials were used, such as pieces of baked clay or shells. In Italian mosaic the colors are especially deep and full. Italian artists made the background with pieces of gilded glass. They depicted human figures in rich colors against a background of sparkling gold. The overall effect was flat, decorative and not realistic.

The mosaics of Byzantine artists were often even less realistic and even more decorative than the motifs of the early Christians. “Byzantine” is the name given to the style of art that developed around the ancient city of Byzantium (now Istanbul, Turkey). The mosaic technique was ideally suited to Byzantine taste for magnificently decorated churches. The famous mosaics of Theodora and Justinian, made around 547 AD, demonstrate a taste for wealth. The jewelry on the figures glitters, and the colorful court dresses sparkle against a backdrop of glittering gold. Byzantine artists also used gold on frescoes and panels. Gold and other precious materials were used in the Middle Ages to separate spiritual objects from the everyday world.

Medieval painting (500–1400)

The first part of the Middle Ages, from about the 6th to 11th centuries AD, is usually called the Dark Ages. During this time of unrest, art was kept mainly in monasteries. In the 5th century AD Warran tribes from northern and central Europe roamed the continent. For hundreds of years they dominated Western Europe. These people produced art in which the main element is pattern. They were particularly fascinated by the structures of intertwined dragons and birds.

The best of Celtic and Saxon art can be found in manuscripts from the 7th and 8th centuries. Book illustrations, illumination and miniature painting, practiced since late Roman times, became widespread in the Middle Ages. Lighting is all about decorating text, capital letters, and margins. Gold, silver and bright colors were used. A miniature is a small paintings, often a portrait. The term was originally used to describe the decorative block around the initial letters in a manuscript.

Charlemagne, who was crowned Holy Roman Emperor at the beginning of the 9th century, attempted to revive the classical art of the late Roman and early Christian periods. During his reign, miniature painters imitated classical art, but they also conveyed personal feelings through their subjects.

Very little wall painting has survived from the Middle Ages. Churches built during the Romanesque period (11th-13th centuries) had some great frescoes, but most of them have disappeared. In churches of the Gothic period (XII-XVI centuries) there was not enough space for wall paintings. Book illustration was the main work of the Gothic painter.

Among the best illustrated manuscripts were books of hours - collections of calendars, prayers and psalms. A page from an Italian manuscript shows elaborate initials and a finely detailed marginal scene of St. George slaying a dragon. The colors are brilliant and jewel-like, like stained glass, and the gold shimmers off the page. Gracefully subtle leaf and floral designs border the text. Artists likely used magnifying glasses to produce such intricate, detailed work.

Italy: Cimabue and Giotto

 

Italian artists at the end of the 13th century were still working in the Byzantine style. Human figures were made flat and decorative. The faces rarely had expression. The bodies were weightless and seemed to float rather than stand firmly on the ground. In Florence, the artist Cimabue (1240-1302) tried to modernize some of the old Byzantine techniques. The angels in Madonna Enthroned are more active than usual in paintings of the time. Their gestures and faces show a little more human feeling. Cimabue added a new sense of monumentality or splendor to his paintings. However, he continued to follow many Byzantine traditions, such as the golden background and patterned arrangement of objects and figures.

It was the great Florentine artist Giotto (1267-1337) who actually broke with the Byzantine tradition. His fresco series in the Arena Chapel in Padua leaves Byzantine art far behind. There is real emotion, tension and naturalism in these scenes from the lives of Mary and Christ. All the qualities of human warmth and sympathy are present. People don't seem completely unreal or heavenly. Giotto shaded the outlines of the figures, and he placed deep shadows in the folds of the clothes to give a sense of roundness and solidity.

For his small panels, Giotto used pure egg tempera, a medium that was perfected by the Florentines in the 14th century. The clarity and brightness of its colors must have greatly influenced people accustomed to the dark colors of Byzantine panels. Tempera paintings give the impression that soft daylight is falling on the scene. They have an almost flat appearance, in contrast to the gloss of oil painting. Egg tempera remained the main paint until oil replaced it almost completely in the 16th century.

Late medieval painting north of the Alps

At the beginning of the 15th century, artists in Northern Europe worked in a style completely different from Italian painting. Northern artists achieved realism by adding countless details to their paintings. All hair was gracefully defined, and every detail of drapery or flooring was precisely positioned. The invention of oil painting made detailing easier.

The Flemish artist Jan van Eyck (1370-1414) made a great contribution to the development of oil painting. When tempera is used, the colors must be applied separately. They cannot shade each other well because the paint dries quickly. With oil that dries slowly, the artist can achieve more complex effects. His portraits from 1466-1530 were executed in the Flemish oil technique. All details and even mirror reflections are clear and precise. The color is durable and has a hard, enamel-like surface. The primed wood panel was prepared in the same way that Giotto prepared his panels for tempera. Van Eyck created the painting with layers of fine color called glaze. Tempera was probably used in the original undergrowth and for highlights.

Italian Renaissance

At the time van Eyck was working in the North, the Italians were moving into a golden age of art and literature. This period is called Renaissance, which means rebirth. Italian artists were inspired by the sculpture of the ancient Greeks and Romans. The Italians wanted to revive the spirit of classical art, which glorifies human independence and nobility. Renaissance artists continued to paint religious scenes. But they also emphasized earthly life and human achievements.

Florence

 

Giotto's achievements in the early 14th century marked the beginning of the Renaissance. Italian artists of the 17th century continued it. Masaccio (1401-1428) was one of the leaders of the first generation of Renaissance artists. He lived in Florence, a wealthy trading city where Renaissance art began. By the time of his death in the late twenties, he had revolutionized painting. In his famous mural "The Tribute Money" he places imposing sculptural figures in a landscape that seems to stretch far into the distance. Masaccio may have studied perspective from the Florentine architect and sculptor Brunelleschi (1377-1414).

The fresco technique was very popular during the Renaissance. It was especially suitable for large murals because the colors in the fresco are dry and perfectly flat. The image can be viewed from any angle without glare or reflections. Frescoes are also accessible. Usually, artists had several assistants. The work was carried out in parts because it had to be completed while the plaster was still wet.

Masaccio's full "three-dimensional" style was typical of the new progressive movement of the 15th century. The style of Fra Angelico (1400-1455) represents a more traditional approach, used by many early Renaissance artists. He was less concerned with perspective and more interested in decorative design. His “Coronation of the Virgin” is an example of tempera at its most beautiful. Fun, rich colors set against gold and accented with gold. The painting looks like an enlarged miniature. The long, narrow figures have little in common with Masaccio. The composition is organized in broad lines of movement circling around the central figures of Christ and Mary.

Another Florentine who worked in the traditional style was Sandro Botticelli (1444-1515). Fluid rhythmic lines connect sections of Botticelli's Spring. The figure of Spring, carried by the west wind, sweeps by from the right. The Three Graces dance in a circle, the flowing folds of their dresses and the graceful movements of their hands expressing the rhythms of the dance.

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) studied painting in Florence. He is known for his scientific research and inventions, as well as his paintings. Very few of his paintings survive, partly because he often experimented with different ways of creating and applying paint rather than using tried and true methods. The Last Supper (painted between 1495 and 1498) was done in oil, but unfortunately Leonardo painted it on a damp wall, which caused the paint to crack. But even in poor condition (before restoration), the painting had the ability to arouse emotions in everyone who sees it.

One of the distinctive features of Leonardo's style was his method of depicting lights and darkness. The Italians called its dim lighting "sfumato", which means smoky or foggy. The figures in the Madonna of the Rocks are veiled in an atmosphere of sfumato. Their shapes and features are softly shaded. Leonardo achieved these effects using very subtle gradations of light and dark tones.

As we travel through centuries of art, we see how technology has transformed artistic creation into an exciting and ever-evolving process. From paints created with love and care during the Renaissance to virtual brushes painting in the fields of virtual reality, each stage in the history of painting represents a fragment of time captured on canvas.

The change of materials, the influence of photography, the birth of abstraction, digital technologies - all these stages form a rich mosaic landscape of art. Today, artists have in their arsenal not only paints and brushes, but also computers, virtual reality programs and many other tools.

The technological revolution has not only changed the way paintings are made, but also expanded the concept of what can be considered art. It allows artists to express themselves in new forms, create interactive works, and innovate in ways that were once thought impossible.

Thus, the history of painting is not only the history of art, but also the history of the interaction between artists and technology. With each new stage of development, we see how technology becomes an integral part of the creative process, continuing to inspire and expand the horizons of art into the endless vistas of the future.